Journal of Smart Farming and Food Security

Allelochemicals as bioherbicides: Physiological mechanisms, resistance profiles, and commercial prospects

Norazua Zakaria — 2026-09-08

Weeds pose a serious threat to crops, causing greater yield losses than any other pest. Synthetic herbicides are potential tools for weed management, but their increasing and often indiscriminate use has caused human health problems, environmental pollution, herbicide resistance, and so on. Allelopathy-based bioherbicides offer more sustainable alternatives to synthetic herbicides for weed management that could be integrated into weed management strategies to reduce herbicide reliance. This systematic review, guided by PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses), aimed to synthesize current evidence on allelochemicals and their potential for bioherbicide development. A comprehensive search of Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar identified 112 studies meeting the inclusion criteria. The review covers synthetic herbicides for weed control, allelochemicals, bioherbicides development, currently available bioherbicides in the market and their impact on weed control and physiology, and potential factors influencing allelochemical efficacy. Allelochemicals impair weed growth through reduced nutrient uptake, reduced pigment synthesis, and alterations in stress-related hormones and reactive oxygen species accumulation. Several allelopathic species and their potential allelochemicals are highlighted as promising candidates for bioherbicide development, though variability in field efficacy and limited large-scale validation remain key limitations. Future research should focus on standardizing extraction and application methods and validating efficacy under field conditions. Clarifying the gene regulatory mechanisms underlying allelochemical biosynthesis and release will also be an important direction for future work. Overall, allelopathy-based bioherbicides represent a promising, sustainable tool for integrated weed management, though further mechanistic and applied research is needed before commercial adoption.

Enhancing growth, yield, and fruit quality of Kulai chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) using selected plant growth regulators

Jupikely James Silip — 2026-08-19

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) offer a potential means of improving chilli productivity by regulating vegetative growth, flowering, fruit development, and biochemical quality. This study evaluated the responses of Kulai chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) to foliar applications of naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA; 20 and 40 mg L⁻¹), gibberellic acid (GA₃; 10 and 20 mg L⁻¹), and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA; 25 and 50 mg L⁻¹) under rain-shelter conditions in Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia. The experiment was arranged in a completely randomised design comprising seven treatments, including a water-sprayed control, with five replications. Treatments were applied at 30 and 45 days after transplanting. Plant growth, flowering, fruit maturity, yield, fruit characteristics, capsaicin content, and vitamin C content were evaluated. GA₃ at 20 mg L⁻¹ produced the tallest plants throughout the cultivation period, reaching 79.4 cm at 90 days after transplanting. IAA at 50 mg L⁻¹ induced the earliest flowering and fruit maturity, reducing the time to the final maturity index from 50.4 days in the control to 41.8 days after anthesis. However, NAA at 40 mg L⁻¹ produced the most favourable overall response, increasing cumulative yield per plant by 61.9% relative to the control and producing the greatest fruit weight and length. This treatment also resulted in the highest capsaicin and vitamin C contents. Seed number per fruit was not significantly affected by the treatments. These findings demonstrate that PGR responses are trait-specific: GA₃ primarily enhanced vegetative growth, IAA accelerated crop development, and NAA at 40 mg L⁻¹ provided the best balance between earliness, yield, and fruit quality. Further multi-season and multi-location validation is required before commercial application.

Interactive effects of banana stem ash and potassium-solubilizing fungi on peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) growth and yield

Andi Rahayu Anwar — 2026-08-19

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) productivity in Indonesia averages approximately 1.0 t ha⁻¹, far below its potential yield of 3.5 t ha⁻¹, mainly due to poor pod filling associated with low soil potassium (K) availability. This study evaluated the integrated application of banana stem ash (BSA) containing 23.6% K₂O and potassium-solubilizing fungi (PSF), including Aspergillus unguis, Metarhizium carneum, and Meyerozyma caribbica, as a locally available nutrient-management strategy to enhance peanut yield. A split-plot design with three replications was applied, consisting of three BSA dosages (0, 500, and 1,000 kg ha⁻¹) and four fungal inoculation treatments. Growth, yield components, and K content in plant tissues and soils were measured at flowering and harvest. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by the least significant difference (LSD) test at 5%. Results showed that BSA at 1,000 kg ha⁻¹ combined with M. carneum increased dry pod weight per plant by 48.2% (24.95 g vs. 16.84 g in the uninoculated control without BSA), while M. caribbica raised the proportion of filled pods to 85.09% compared with 53.86% in the uninoculated control without BSA. Soil available K₂O increased from 21.82 to 25.94 mg 100 g⁻¹ under the highest BSA dose. These outcomes indicate a significant positive interaction between BSA and PSF for dry pod weight, whereas other variables were mainly influenced by BSA and/or PSF main effects. Because no conventional K-fertilizer control was included, the integrated use of PSF and BSA should be considered a potential complementary approach for improving peanut yield, soil K status, and nutrient-management sustainability in Indonesia.

Effect of water quality and organic fertilizer type on Azolla pinnata biomass production

Ahmed Al-Mothefer — 2026-09-08

Azolla pinnata is an aquatic fern with high potential as feed; however, its productivity is heavily influenced by water quality and nutrient availability under local environmental conditions. A field experiment was conducted at the College of Agriculture, University of Basra, specifically in the Aquaculture Unit (67°44'00" E, 31°32'47" N), to investigate the effect of water type (W) and organic fertilizer type (N) on the production of Azolla pinnata plants grown in water tanks. The experiment consisted of two factors: first, two types of water: (W1) reverse osmosis (RO) water, and (W2) tap water sourced from the Al-Bid'ah River. The second factor was two types of organic fertilizer: (N1) poultry manure, and (N2) livestock manure. The experiment was conducted with three replicates using a completely randomized design. Means were analyzed using the LSD test at a comparison level of P ≤ 0.05 to determine the differences between treatments, specifically the total fresh weight and total dry weight. The results indicate that treatment (reverse osmosis water) was superior to treatment (water from the Al-Bida’a river) in all studied parameters (fresh weight and dry weight). Treatment W1 recorded the highest fresh weight production with an increase of 10.49%, along with a 10.32% increase in dry weight. No significant differences were recorded between the water type W and the organic fertilizer type N in terms of fresh weight production. The results indicate that treatment (poultry manure) was superior to treatment (cow manure) in the fresh weight parameter, recording the highest fresh weight production with an increase of 2.74%. Despite the significant impact of the interaction between water type and organic fertilizer type on dry weight, the interaction between reverse osmosis water and poultry waste is better than the interaction of Al-Bida’a River water with poultry manure by 20.79%, and the treatment of Al-Bida’a water with aquatic waste by 20.79%. Reverse osmosis water mixed with poultry manure has proven very beneficial in enhancing Azolla pinnata fresh weight production under the studied conditions.

Training-to-application gaps in digital agricultural practices: Exploratory evidence from agricultural actors in China

Fan Mo — 2026-09-18

Digital-skills training is increasingly used to advance agricultural digitalisation; however, participation and learning do not necessarily translate into application within production and business routines. This exploratory study investigates the training-to-application gap using 156 questionnaire records from agricultural actors in China recruited via convenience sampling through WeChat-based networks. The outcome is a broad, self-reported, four-category indicator of post-training digital application based on retrospective assessments of training experiences over the preceding two years, rather than a technology-specific measure of adoption, sustained use, or performance. Grounded in training-transfer theory, the analysis examines whether perceived content relevance, an inverse scenario/practice-barrier index, and course-linked post-training support are associated with higher reported application. Cumulative-logit estimates yielded no statistically detectable associations for the three indicators in the baseline model (likelihood-ratio test p = .995; McFadden pseudo-R² = .001). The conclusions concerning H1–H3 remained unchanged across alternative predictor coding, separate modelling of the two barrier components, and expanded covariate adjustment. An exploratory secondary finding indicated higher reported application among production-oriented respondents than among market- or service-oriented respondents; however, the broad outcome may not be fully comparable across business contexts. The study's principal contribution lies in conceptually distinguishing training participation, learning, initial trial, continued use, routinisation, and operational value. On this basis, the article advances a literature-informed Conditional Conversion Framework for future testing, in which technical feasibility, economic viability, platform and market fit, and ecosystem implementation support may enable or constrain progression across application stages.

Portable electrochemical biosensing platform for rapid, on-site detection of zearalenone mycotoxin in grain corn and animal feed

Nur Azura Mohd Said — 2026-09-28

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a heat-stable estrogenic mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species that frequently contaminates cereal grains and animal feed, posing severe threats to food safety, livestock health, and agricultural economies. While laboratory-based detection methods are highly accurate, they are often time-consuming and unsuitable for the real-time, on-site applications required by smart agricultural systems. Here, we present a portable electrochemical biosensing platform designed for rapid, decentralized ZEA quantification in raw grain corn and processed poultry feed. Screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) were functionalized with a conductive polyaniline/gold nanoparticle (PANi/AuNP) nanocomposite, providing a high-surface-area matrix for stable anti-ZEA polyclonal antibody immobilization and accelerated electron transfer. Using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) with an optimized 1:5 matrix-to-buffer dilution ratio to minimize matrix effects, the platform achieved a linear detection range of 0-200 µg/kg (ppb) with limits of detection (LOD) of 36.88 ppb in buffer and 57.66 ppb in matrix, aligning with international regulatory thresholds. The biosensor demonstrated high analytical accuracy with spiked recoveries between 80.19% and 93.92%, while functionalized SPCE strips maintained robust storage stability at room temperature for 14 days. The sensor strips were coupled with the handheld MARDIsense reader and a smartphone application for automated data processing and real-time cloud logging. Validation across 52 real-world agricultural samples (n=37 raw grains; n=15 feed/kernel matrices) demonstrated 100% categorical agreement and strong quantitative correlation (r=0.931, p<0.001) relative to reference ELISA. Crucially, epidemiological profiling revealed low contamination in pre-harvest field grains (94.6% <50 ppb) contrasting with severe contamination in processed poultry feed (50% > 100 ppb). This highlights the platform's vital utility for prioritizing post-harvest feed mill surveillance to safeguard the food supply chain.